This paper extends a presentation at the panel discussion “Will the Changing U.S. Energy Mix Transform Multimodal Freight Systems?� made at the 2015 annual Washington Meeting of the Transportation Research Board.

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This photograph shows a Dassault Rafale aircraft parked on the tarmac of the French Air and Space Force Luxeuil-Saint-Sauveur Airbase in Saint-Sauveur, France, on March 18, 2025. (Ludovic Marin/AFP via Getty Images)